Cognitive development
Why is understanding cognitive development important?
Cognitive development refers to the development of the ability to think and reason. Studying and understanding cognitive development theories can help you understand topics such as attention, memory, intelligence, reasoning and decision-making, causal understanding, categorization, and language development. Having a grasp of these topics can assist in learning and understanding the rationals of yourself and other people.
Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Mainly when exploring cognitive development, the theories of Jean Piaget (9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980) are the most heavily examined. Piaget was a Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher who developed the theory of cognitive development. The theory has four distinct stages for cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
The sensorimotor stage is the first stage of Piaget's theory, and it lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with (such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening) to learn more about the environment.
The sensorimotor stage can be broken into six sub-stages that are characterized by the development of a new skill:
According to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object permanence is a child's understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard. A game of peek-a-boo is the best example to explain this concept. A very young infant will believe that the other person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled when the object reappears. Older infants who understand object permanence will realize that the person or object continues to exist even when unseen.
The preoperational stage is the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development., and it occurs roughly between the ages two and seven. Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.
During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse. Role playing also becomes important during the preoperational stage. Children often play the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor" and many other characters.
Two hallmarks of the preoperational stage identified by Piaget are egocentrism and conservation. According to Piaget, and a study that he conducted involving the "Three Mountain Task," children in the preoperational experience difficulty taking on another person's perspective. This results in the child only thinking about him or herself and Piaget coined the term egocentrism to describe this effect. Another well-known experiment by Piaget involved demonstrating a child's understanding of conservation. Piaget conducted a number of experiments on conservation of number, length, mass, weight, volume, and quantity. He found that few children showed any understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.
The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.
The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve to and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.
Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a specific outcome. This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required in science and mathematics.
Piaget also identified subjects in this stage using abstract thought. While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term planning.
In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to solving a problem.
Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Although the theories of Jean Piaget are the most encompassing theories on cognitive development, Lev Vygotsky (November 17, 1896 - June 11, 1934) contributed a theory that has recently gotten more attention. Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed the Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development.
Sociocultural theory is a emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. The theory asserts that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large are responsible for the development of higher order functions. Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place.
Cognitive development refers to the development of the ability to think and reason. Studying and understanding cognitive development theories can help you understand topics such as attention, memory, intelligence, reasoning and decision-making, causal understanding, categorization, and language development. Having a grasp of these topics can assist in learning and understanding the rationals of yourself and other people.
Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Mainly when exploring cognitive development, the theories of Jean Piaget (9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980) are the most heavily examined. Piaget was a Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher who developed the theory of cognitive development. The theory has four distinct stages for cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
The sensorimotor stage is the first stage of Piaget's theory, and it lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with (such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening) to learn more about the environment.
The sensorimotor stage can be broken into six sub-stages that are characterized by the development of a new skill:
- Reflexes (0-1 month):During this sub-stage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.
- Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):This sub-stage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may such his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.
- Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):During this sub-stage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.
- Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):During this sub-stage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.
- Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth sub-stage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver.
- Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor sub-stage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.
According to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object permanence is a child's understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard. A game of peek-a-boo is the best example to explain this concept. A very young infant will believe that the other person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled when the object reappears. Older infants who understand object permanence will realize that the person or object continues to exist even when unseen.
The preoperational stage is the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development., and it occurs roughly between the ages two and seven. Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.
During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse. Role playing also becomes important during the preoperational stage. Children often play the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor" and many other characters.
Two hallmarks of the preoperational stage identified by Piaget are egocentrism and conservation. According to Piaget, and a study that he conducted involving the "Three Mountain Task," children in the preoperational experience difficulty taking on another person's perspective. This results in the child only thinking about him or herself and Piaget coined the term egocentrism to describe this effect. Another well-known experiment by Piaget involved demonstrating a child's understanding of conservation. Piaget conducted a number of experiments on conservation of number, length, mass, weight, volume, and quantity. He found that few children showed any understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.
The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.
The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve to and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.
Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a specific outcome. This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required in science and mathematics.
Piaget also identified subjects in this stage using abstract thought. While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term planning.
In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to solving a problem.
Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Although the theories of Jean Piaget are the most encompassing theories on cognitive development, Lev Vygotsky (November 17, 1896 - June 11, 1934) contributed a theory that has recently gotten more attention. Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed the Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development.
Sociocultural theory is a emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. The theory asserts that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large are responsible for the development of higher order functions. Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place.
The most important concept in sociocultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development. According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development "is the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or perform on their own yet, but is capable of learning with guidance.
Vygotsky believed that peer interaction was an essential part of the learning process. In order for children to learn new skills, he suggested pairing more competent students with less skilled ones. When a student is in this zone of proximal development, providing them with the appropriate assistance and tools, which he referred to as scaffolding, gives the student what they need to accomplish the new task or skill. Eventually, the scaffolding can be removed and the student will be able to complete the task independently. It is important to realize that the zone of proximal development is not a stationary target. As a learner gains new skills and abilities, this zone moves progressively forward |
Vygotsky and Piaget Comparison
As Vygotsky and Piaget were contemporaries of each other, their works on cognitive development theories are often compared to each other's. Although there are plenty of differences and similarities between the two theories, the main differences are as follows:
For more on comparisons of Vygotsky's and Piaget's theories, watch the two minute video to the right. |
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